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Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer-delimited particles which are released naturally from nearly all types of cells but cannot replicate like cells. There are three types of EVs that are categorized on the basis of their size and synthesis route. These include apoptotic bodies, exosomes, and microvesicles. They transport a cargo of lipids, proteins, metabolites, nucleic acids and even parent cell organelles. The communication mechan...

The cells of the body generate free radicals throughout the metabolic processes. These cells also generate antioxidants, which neutralize the free radicals. Generally, the body is capable of balancing free radicals and antioxidants. Oxidative stress refers to a condition characterized by an imbalance of antioxidants and free radicals in the body that can cause tissue and cell damage. It occurs naturally and contributes to the process of aging....

The advancements in the field of engineering are applied in a wide variety of fields. One such field is surgery, where engineering innovations are used for improving patient outcomes and care. Research in this field is generally carried out within the interdisciplinary field of biomedical engineering. It involves advancements in different domains of healthcare such as diagnosis, monitoring and therapy. Some of the major advancements in this fi...

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are a rare subset of cells identified in the blood of patients having solid tumor. It serves as a seed for metastases. Cancer cells generally metastasize in two ways in the bloodstream, through single migratory CTCs or multicellular groupings. They imitate tumor properties and sustain tumor heterogeneity. They are also potentially useful as preclinical models, clinical biomarkers, and therapeutic targets. Further...

A biofilm includes any syntrophic consortium of microorganisms in which cells stick to each other as well as to a surface. The microorganisms in a biofilm can demonstrate notable organization and can collaborate, communicate, and coordinate with one another. Biofilms can form on various surfaces in natural, industrial and hospital environments. The biofilms challenge the theory that bacteria are single-celled organisms, or which act in isolati...

Polyester refers to a category of synthetic polymers built up from several chemical repeating units connected together by ester (CO-O) groups. They include both naturally occurring chemicals like those found in insects and plants, and synthetic chemicals like polybutyrate. Polyesters exhibit a diverse range of properties and useful applications. They are used as building blocks in drug delivery vehicles due to their properties of biodegradabil...

Mitochondria are double-membrane-bound organelles found in eukaryotic cells. They build cable-like structures and deliver energy to cells with the help of oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) process. Aging causes a wide range of interrelated conditions and is also a leading cause of various human diseases. The age-associated changes in mitochondria are linked with deterioration in mitochondrial function. The accumulation of oxidative damage and...

Tumor cells have a remarkable ability to survive in harsh circumstances, resist treatment and evade regulatory mechanisms like apoptosis and therapy. They alter their metabolism in order to sustain metastatic progression and uncontrolled growth. Functional and phenotypic heterogeneity in tumor cells gives them metastatic potential, aggressiveness and the capability to resist treatment. This heterogeneity is governed by a range of intrinsic and...

Signal processing is a subfield of electrical engineering involved in analyzing, modifying and synthesizing signals such as sound, images and scientific measurements. The techniques of signal processing are used to improve transmission, storage efficiency, and subjective quality. They can also emphasize or detect components of interest in a measured signal. There are various categories of signal processing such as analog, continuous time, digi...

Natural products play an important role in pharmacotherapy, particularly in the treatment of infectious diseases and cancer. These products originate from fungi, animals and plants. These products, which include oils, fruits, nuts, whole grains and vegetables, contain modest levels of bioactive compounds, which have therapeutic potential and health-promoting properties. Major categories of bioactive compounds comprise tannins, lycopene, lignin...

Surgery refers to a branch of medicine that deals with the manual and mechanical treatment of wounds, illnesses and other disorders. Several techniques can be utilized depending on the type of surgery. The two most common types of surgical techniques include minimally invasive surgery and open surgery. There are several challenges associated with surgery such as bleeding problems during surgery, death due to surgery, difficulty breathing after...

Obesity is a term used to describe a condition wherein a person's body has an excessive percentage of fat. Metabolic surgery is an effective and long-term treatment for managing the cases of morbid obesity. It leads to significant weight loss and helps improve, resolve or prevent a variety of related diseases such as hypertension, type-2 diabetes, sleep apnea, heart disease and some types of cancers. Metabolic surgery is highly effective in ac...

Hearing loss refers to the partial or total loss of hearing in one or both ears, which can range from mild to profound. It is a common issue caused by illness, noise, heredity and aging. Mixed hearing loss, sensorineural hearing loss, and conductive hearing loss are the three basic types of hearing loss. There are various signs and symptoms of hearing loss including trouble understanding speech in the presence of background noise, loss of soun...

Hepatic fibrosis is characterized by the scarring, overgrowth and hardening of different tissues of the liver and is caused by an excess buildup of extracellular matrix components such as collagen. It is the result of repeated wound-healing response of the liver to repeated injuries. It can be caused due to chronic liver diseases such as cystic fibrosis (CF), hepatitis B and hepatitis C. Cystic fibrosis refers to a type of inherited disease ch...

Graves' disease refers to a disorder affecting the immune system which leads to the overproduction of thyroid hormones. Graves' ophthalmopathy, also called Graves' orbitopathy, is an autoimmune disease affecting the retro-ocular tissues in patients having Graves' disease. It is primarily the disease of the orbit and can have severe implications, such as loss of sight. It causes swelling in the area around the eyes, which causes bulging of the ...

Acupuncture is a type of alternative medicine, which is a significant constituent of conventional Chinese medicine. It involves the insertion of thin needles in one or more parts of body which are left there for fifteen to twenty minutes. It is linked with the application of pressure, heat and laser light. Generally utilized techniques of needling in acupuncture are insertion and de-qi sensation. Stainless steel needles are used in acupuncture...

Biomechanics refers to the study of the motion, structure and function of the mechanical components of biological systems. This can span various levels, from whole organisms to cell organelles, organs and cells by utilizing the methods of mechanics. Sports biomechanics involves quantitative study and analysis of sports activities and professional players. It includes a thorough analysis of sport movements to reduce the risk of injury and enhan...

Skeletal muscles are organs found in the vertebrate muscular system that are usually connected to skeleton bones through tendons. It is the most abundant tissue in the human body and it is longer than other muscle tissues. It also has a strong innate ability to repair tissue damage occurred through an accident or degenerative illnesses, like muscular dystrophy, and regenerate new muscle fibers. Satellite cells and myogenic progenitors located ...

The human T-lymphotropic virus, also known as HTLV, refers to a group of human retroviruses which are recognized for causing a type of cancer known as adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma, and a demyelinating disease called HTLV-1 linked myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis. The HTLVs are a part of larger group of primate T-lymphotropic viruses. The members of this family which infect human beings are known as HTLVs and those who infect old world...

Nursing is the branch of medical science which involves delivering person-centered care. It is also focused on the maintenance of the optimal well-being and quality of life for individuals. The principal roles of nursing include health promotion and prevention of illness, caring for disabled and mentally ill persons, and engaging in healthcare teaching. Nursing also involves providing assistance in healthcare research. On the basis of the pati...